In 1995, Alberta wolves were captured for transport and release within wilderness habitats in the western United States to re-establish populations there. Attitudes toward wolves are controversial, so it should not be surprising that this wildlife management program received intense media coverage and elicited a wide range of public opinions, both negative as well as positive.

In its broadest sense, wildlife management is aimed at sustaining or restoring animal populations for their own sake and for human benefit. In the example above, where wolves were removed from Alberta to establish a population elsewhere, the decision to participate included consideration for the provincial wolf population, care for the captured wolves, as well as support for wolf recovery in the USA.

Wolf management needs to be based on a thorough knowledge of wolves, their habits and ecological relationships. Over the years, Alberta has conducted several field studies of wolves. This web site describes these studies and the provincial wolf population, and it outlines strategies to ensure the wise use and enjoyment of wolves in Alberta for the years to come.

John R. Gunson
Wildlife Management Biologist


Contrasting Views

Intelligent hunter or savage killer-the wolf has been many things to mankind. Few species engender such strong emotions as does this largest of the wild dogs. From our very early days to modern times, wolves have fascinated and angered humans.

Long ago, early man reached into a den and obtained young wolf pups, which became the ancestors of dog companions, hunting partners and beasts of burden. Wolf-dogs were domesticated over a period of thousands of years and their use spread to wherever people lived. Aboriginal North Americans, who kept their own wolf-dogs, respected their wild competitor, the wolf, because of its skills as a hunter. In the words of author Barry Lopez-"the wolf lived in a way that made the tribe strong; he provided food that all, even the sick and old, could eat; he saw to the education of his children; he defended his territory against other wolves."

This view of the wolf would change with European settlement. The new North Americans, many from areas long devoid of large carnivores but with enduring legends, brought their trepidation of wolves with them. The fear was reinforced as wolves attacked their livestock and pets. The wolf's natural habit of killing other wildlife as well as livestock put them in bad light with our pioneering forefathers. In retaliation, the settlers invented diverse ways to rid the land of this carnivore that had become a pest. Vast areas of the continent were cleared of wolves.

In recent times, hunters have viewed the wolf as a competitor for scarce game resources-and this perception is undeniable. Wolves and hunters do compete for hoofed mammals. Research, some of which is detailed in the following pages, has shown that certain caribou, moose and elk populations have declined because of a combination of limiting factors. Furthermore, if at low densities, the herds are often kept from increasing by natural predation, much of it by wolves. Hunters, who are often the first to call for reductions in their harvests to assist in restoration of ungulates, become frustrated if wolf control is not included as part of the management regime in these situations.

On the other hand, there is a growing demand for wilderness with its attendant wildlife. Wilderness is a link with the past, when the living world was not compromised by human activities. As a component of a pristine natural order, the wolf should be maintained for its own right and for future generations of people to respect and enjoy.


A Social Carnivore


The gray wolf (correct common name) or timber wolf (as northern Canadians like to call it) is the largest of the Canidae, or dog family. It successfully adapted to a wide range of habitats and historically roamed over most of the northern hemisphere. On our continent, it thrived in the tundra of high Arctic islands, throughout the diverse forests of the mainland, and on the interior plains south to Mexico. Its range may have been greater than for any other terrestrial mammal.

Although regional variation did occur, wolves were quite similar in essential features. This similarity suggests continual integration, which was no doubt maintained by the long-distance dispersals of sub-adult wolves. Tags and modern electronic gear have helped biologists to document wolf movements of hundreds of kilometres.


The wolf in Alberta is among the largest of its species, a characteristic it shares with other wolves of the northwest. For example, Alberta wolves are about 40 percent heavier, on average, than wolves in the Great Lakes region of the east. Average winter weights in Alberta are 48 kg (110 lb.) for adult males and 41 kg (91 lb.) for adult females. Many of the largest skulls measured for North American wolves are from Alberta specimens.

The wolf's evolution favored characteristics that ensured the greatest success in the hunt and long-term survival. Long legs and a deep narrow chest allow far-reaching travels in search of the next meal. Keen eyesight, smell and hearing, large body size and massive canines enable wolves to detect, attack and pull down large mammals.

The wolf pack, a cohesive family-group, travels, hunts and rests together. Packs commonly include a pair of breeding adults and their pups, as well as yearlings or extra adults. The number of wolves in packs varies from 2 to more than 30, but most packs number between 5 and 12 wolves. Where the principal prey is larger, such as moose or bison, there is a tendency for packs to be larger.

The exclusive territories of breeding wolf packs serve to divide prey resources into portions distributed among the wolf population. This spacing is accomplished by a pack advertising its presence through scent marking or, if unavoidable, through aggressive encounters. During times of food shortage, a pack's territory may be invaded by neighboring wolves, which may lead to fighting and killing of their own kind. Wolf territories range in size from 50 to over 2000 km. Where prey are migratory, such as with certain northern caribou herds, the territories or ranges used by wolves are the largest.

The social nature of wolves is advantageous for a carnivore that attacks and pulls down animals bigger than itself. A pack hunts and attacks as a team. The young are taught coordinated search and attack strategies during their first summer or fall. Howling is a form of communication that helps pack members stay in touch with each other; this facilitates pack splitting and reformation.

Old or debilitated wolves may be ejected from their pack. These lone animals may follow at a distance or seek out a living between pack territories. Loners typically form less than 15 percent of the wolf population. A good example was a radio-collared female in a study pack in the Brazeau Range of western Alberta in 1983. "Dolly," as she was called by the research team, was part of a small pack of four wolves that, surprisingly, killed moose as well as their major prey, mule deer. Adult moose can be formidable, and may force hunting wolves to test several moose before attacking. It was probably during one of these encounters with moose that Dolly suffered an injury. She developed a bad limp and soon lagged behind. During the first winter observations, her pack mates rested often and even backtracked to check on her. But in the second winter, when the pack numbered nine, she fell behind for good. She followed the pack, feeding on several of its kills. She finally left her old territory and took up a new range where she survived for at least one more year and probably longer.


The Historical Record


When European explorers entered present-day Alberta, wolves were widespread and abundant. Anthony Henday, the first fur trader to see Alberta, observed many wolves in association with bison herds in 1754 and recorded in his diary, "I cannot say whether them (wolves) or the Buffalo are most numerous." Over 100 years later, the famous Palliser expedition, which explored the western Canadian plains during 1857-1860, noted plentiful wolves in the Battle River and other areas, and reported Native claims of occasional outbreaks of rabies in wolves. A few years after that, in about 1865, the Reverend John McDougall described abundant wolves at bison hunt camps and their depredations of horses.

Then the tide for wolves began to change for the worse. The first phase of their demise was the slaughter of bison. The 1860s and 1870s saw the once great herds extirpated over most of the western plains. Other ungulates suffered too-from over-hunting by settlers, and market hunting for developing towns, railways and mines. Severe winter weather and uncontrolled fires took their toll. Without their usual prey, the wolves were hard-pressed to survive.


But that was not to be their only blow. "Wolfing" - the poisoning of wolves at carcasses - became an easy and lucrative means to harvest wolves. Thousands were taken in this way. Fur trappers spread the use of poisons to the wolves of the forested north and west. The wolf persisted, so in 1899 a wolf bounty was implemented in southern Alberta. This program, administered during the early years by the Western Stock Growers' Association, paid for 2849 wolves by 1907. That year, the province extended the bounty to include all of Alberta. By the early 1900s, wolves were dramatically reduced throughout the southern portions of the province.


Wolf populations increased in Alberta during 1935-1945 and again during 1965-1975. Recovery in Banff National Park, where this photograph was taken, did not occur until the mid-1980s. An important limitation to wolves in the park is frequent mortality on the Trans-Canada highway and the railroad.

The pressure on wolves in the new province of Alberta continued during the first quarter century through control actions in agricultural areas and through the bounty. The last wolves were removed from Waterton Lakes National Park in extreme southern Alberta in 1922 because of their kills of livestock in neighboring regions. During this period of declining wolves and the initiation of legal protection of big game, ungulate herds increased. The elk population, decimated to fewer than 400 in the province by 1910, recovered dramatically following reintroductions and rigid protection. Deer, moose and bighorn sheep increased as well.

The wolves responded slowly. Dewey Soper, one of Canada's greatest early mammalogists, reported on the abundance of wolves in Wood Buffalo National Park (WBNP) in 1925. A southerly expansion of these northern wolves, and an influx from far western Alberta and British Columbia, occurred during the 1930s according to wildlife manager, John Stelfox. He later chronicled the gradual buildup of wolves during the 1930s and 1940s, which was marked by periodic removal of the wolf bounty. The low market value of wolf pelts discouraged trappers. By the late 1940s the species had achieved a remarkable comeback throughout much of forested Canada, but it was to be short-lived.

Agriculturists soon reported severe depredations of livestock, and hunters began to complain of poor survival of game herds. By the mid- to late 1940s, wildlife managers had become concerned about the loss of game to wolves. A similarly concerned group of sportsmen conducted a pilot wolf control program in the Clearwater Forest in 1951 with the approval of the Game Commission. Snares were legalized for the trapping of wolves and coyotes, and cyanide "coyote-getters" were distributed to forestry personnel. Control even resumed in the national parks.

In 1952, hard times returned with a vengeance for wolves in all of Alberta. After rabies, that dreaded disease, spread from northern foxes into coyotes and wolves, the province's veterinary service began management actions that included control of large carnivores. Thousands of wolves were killed, mostly by poisoning during 1952-1956. John Stelfox estimated that a provincial population of 500-1000 survived. For the second time since the beginning of settlement, wolves in Alberta were at a low point.

Occasional wolf control to assist game herds continued during the late 1950s and early 1960s. In the national parks, control was terminated in 1959-60 (1969 in WBNP). On provincial land, managers attempted to integrate wolf numbers with game abundance, range conditions, and hunter harvests. Control was light and sporadic until 1965-66 when 73 wolves were removed. After the decision to suspend wolf reductions was made, wolves could breathe a little easier. The moratorium on wolf control to enhance ungulates was to last for at least 29 years.

The wolves did not waste much time in responding. By the mid-1970s their numbers had risen to levels comparable to those of the late 1940s. But this time, more sophisticated projects were in place; several population studies were completed or in progress. Depredations by wolves were carefully investigated and recorded. A compensation program to assist livestock owners with losses to predators began in 1974. Wolf diseases were monitored.

Wolves spread farther south and occupied habitats like the Frog Lake Moraine and the Beaver River Metis Settlement where they had not been observed for many years. Along the eastern slopes of the Rockies, wolves expanded their distribution to the Highwood River by 1975. Concurrently, confirmed sightings of wolves were reported near Provost, Cypress Hills and Waterton Lakes National Park. The resilient wolf was back to stay.


Present Status of the Wolf


The provincial population for the period 1975-1985 was estimated using the results from five study areas. The average annual winter population was calculated at 4200 wolves. It included averages of 919 km©— for pack territories, 8.7 wolves per pack and an adjustment of 12 percent for lone wolves. At the end of winter, approximately 3500 wolves would survive. With the birth of pups in spring, about 5000 wolves would start another year. Status of wolves in each of the intensive study areas is described below.

Jasper National Park - In an early study during 1942-1946, when ungulates were abundant and overgrazing their winter range, Ian McTaggart-Cowan found about 48 wolves, a low density (4/1000 km©—). Park wardens were controlling wolves to keep their numbers down. Twenty-five years later during 1969-1970, a time when wolves were protected in the park, Ludwig Carbyn of the Canadian Wildlife Service found, through tracking and sightings by wardens, about the same numbers as in Cowan's time. In this study area, control on adjacent provincial lands may have kept wolf numbers down. Then in the 1970s, wolves increased generally in the province as well as in the park. Dick Dekker, a naturalist who made several trips each year to the park to observe wolves, reported a dramatic increase in the population. From his own observations and warden reports, he estimated at least 80-100 wolves by 1974. These relatively high numbers endured until 1982 when the population began a steep decline following the near demise of elk herds in remote districts of the park.

Northeastern Alberta - Todd Fuller and Lloyd Keith, researchers with the University of Wisconsin, monitored wolves on the 25 000 km©— Alberta Oil Sands Environmental Research Program (AOSERP) area near Fort McMurray during 1976-1977. Radio-telemetry data from four packs, a trapper survey and incidental observations were combined to estimate a population of 166 wolves (7/1000 km©—). The low density reflected the slowly declining moose population of 180/1000 km©—.

Swan Hills - The AOSERP researchers also monitored two radioed packs in the Swan Hills. They estimated 24 wolves in 2000 km or 12/1000 km©—. The moose population at about 1500/1000 km©— was much greater than in the AOSERP area.

Simonette River - During 1975-1981, Ron Bjorge, Bill Johnson, John Gunson, and their Alberta Fish and Wildlife colleagues investigated the wolf population near Valleyview to evaluate predation of livestock in the forest-agricultural transition zone. Twenty-five wolves were radio-collared. During 1975-1979, when control was replaced by special compensation, the wolves increased to 24/1000 km©—. In this productive habitat with wild ungulates, beaver and livestock, the upward trend in wolves may have continued, but was reversed with local control during 1979-80 in response to livestock depredations.

Wood Buffalo National Park - Wolves were observed on the bison ranges in WBNP during 1978-1981 by Lu Carbyn of the Canadian Wildlife Service, University of Calgary researcher Sebastian Oosenbrug, and the park's warden service. They radioed and monitored 38 wolves in eight packs and an additional five lone or paired wolves. The population remained stable at about 25/1000 km©— during the period of study.


Nordegg - Ken Schmidt and John Gunson of Alberta Fish and Wildlife and Peter Clarkson of the University of Calgary studied wolves in the mountainous and foothill habitats near Nordegg during 1983-1986. Six wolves in two packs were radioed. Low wolf densities were related to low populations of ungulates.


Oldman River/Livingston Range - Researchers from the University of Montana, assisted by Alberta Fish and Wildlife, attempted wolf capture in southwestern Alberta in 1982 as part of a continuing wolf recovery program in northern Montana. Despite intensive efforts, no wolves were captured. The few sightings, combined with known shootings during the study, confirmed the sporadic occurrence of wolves in this area


Banff National Park and Kananaskis Country - By 1930, no viable wolf population existed in Banff National Park. Despite a comeback in the 1940s when biologist Hubert Green reported five packs, wolves lost ground in the 1950's as a result of control by park wardens. Lone wolves were again sighted in the mid- to late 1970s and pack activity was documented in the Bow River Valley in 1982. During the 1980s, Banff's wolf population increased to several packs, which became the subject of scientific study by the warden service's Mike Gibeau, World Wildlife Fund's Paul Paquet and University of British Columbia's David Huggard. Elk predominated in the summer and winter diets of two wolf packs inhabiting lower elevations. By 1990, there were about 40 wolves in the park.

As wolf recovery was occurring in Banff National Park, packs began to assemble in Peter Lougheed Provincial Park and adjacent areas of Kananaskis Country. Wolves, some originally marked in Montana and Banff, denned and raised pups in the Highwood and Sheep river drainage's. Elise Gallerani of the University of Calgary, Steve Donelon of the provincial park and Paul Paquet used satellite telemetry to show that wolves of this area traveled to British Columbia, eastern Idaho and Montana.


Human Use and Enjoyment


As a rule, Albertans have not made great efforts to view wolves. Dick Dekker of Edmonton has hiked in Jasper National Park to systematically observe wolves over a 31-year period and has described these observations in several publications, including the books: Wild Hunters and Wolf Story. Other Albertans are increasingly recognizing the wolf as a valuable wilderness species; and today, increasing numbers of people would enjoy seeing a wolf in the wild. Trappers have historically been the major users of wolves in Alberta. Although the first regulated trapping season in the province was not established until 1967, wolves had long been harvested on the remote trap line. Efforts were dependent on fur market demand and prices. In recent years, prices of $70-$90 per pelt have been regarded by most trappers as insufficient to compensate for costs of capture and pelt preparation. Trappers took an annual harvest of fewer than 400 wolves during the 1980s and early 1990s.


Hunters have opportunities to shoot wolves during a long season from the opening of big game hunting in fall to the end of the following May. Despite this liberal season, few wolves are taken. Their wary nature provides security in the heavily forested northern and western portions of the province.
In the open foothill and mountain habitats of the southwest, wolves are more vulnerable to shooting. Here, their numbers are repeatedly reduced by hunters, landowners and cattlemen and by occasional governmental control following depredations of livestock. Total annual kill of wolves by hunters in Alberta is estimated at 100.


Problems with Wolves


The carnivorous nature of wolves creates two major areas of conflict for Albertans. Predation of livestock costs ranchers time and money; and wolf kills of wild ungulates reduce hunters' harvests.


Predation of Livestock - Wolf predation is an important limiting factor to bison in Wood Buffalo National Park. Working in the park in the early 1950s, Bill Fuller of the Canadian Wildlife Service observed that predation was most severe on very old animals, calves and those bison with tuberculosis or other handicaps. Fuller considered the removal of bison with advanced tuberculosis by wolves to be a service in herd sanitation.

Today, wolf predation of livestock occurs along the forest-agricultural fringe, which in Alberta is more extensive than in any other province. Grazing reserves or leased pastures located within forested public land may have severe problems when wolves are abundant. Factors that influence the wolf-livestock issue include the numbers of livestock grazed and the care put into their supervision. Also important are the status of the local wolf population and the relative abundance of wild prey. Complaints involving wolf predation of livestock have been common in Alberta since 1972.

The following statistics provide an understanding of the extent of this wolf problem in Alberta. From 1972 to 1990, over 2800 complaints were reported to wildlife management authorities, an average of 160 per year. About 70 percent of these complaints involved claims of harassment, injury to, or killing of livestock and pets. Cattle composed about 73 percent of the livestock reports; dogs - 7 percent, horses - 6 percent, sheep - 5 percent, bison - 2 percent, poultry - 2 percent, goats - 1 percent, and other animals - 4 percent.

The Government of Alberta investigated wolf predation of cattle on remote pastures near the Simonette River during 1975-1981. Cattle were counted, classified by sex and age, and monitored for behavior and losses; and wolves were captured, radio-collared and their kills recorded. Although wild ungulates, especially moose, constituted the bulk of the year-round diet of wolves, cattle remains (hair) occurred in 20 percent of 245 summer wolf scats. Four out of every 10 cattle that died from known causes, were killed by wolves, but wolves mauled three for every one killed. Removal of most of the wolves during two winters reduced cattle mortalities. The investigators concluded that wolves were responsible for about 50 percent of the cattle losses on the remote area.


The Simonette River studies provided the opportunity for cattlemen, wildlife researchers and resource managers to cooperatively define the wolf-livestock problem at the field level. As a result of the research, government could better appreciate the extent of such predation. The study also evaluated the effectiveness of the province's control program and had implications for overall wolf management in agricultural areas.


Predation of Ungulates - Studies of wolves and their food habits have provided conclusive evidence that wolves depend primarily on hoofed mammals for their sustenance. During winter, the wolf's diet is overwhelmingly composed of these large mammals, and even in summer, ungulates represent the bulk of the biomass consumed by most wolves. In Alberta, ungulate prey include moose, white-tailed deer, mule deer, elk, caribou, bison, bighorn sheep, feral horse, and occasionally, mountain goat. Beaver can be an important prey species during the ice-free season, and snowshoe hares can be locally important during cyclic highs.


The frequency with which wolves kill ungulates has been determined in several study areas in North America by aerial observation or tracking, especially during winter when kills are more easily discovered. Kill rates, or the number of days between kills, are influenced by the number of wolves in the pack and by the size of the prey species. Where moose predominate, a pack of nine wolves will kill a moose about every five days. Where prey are smaller than moose, kills occur more frequently. A pack of this size will make a kill, on average, every three days where the prey consist of mixed species such as deer and elk, or every two days where the prey are restricted to deer.


Wolves do not kill haphazardly - they select those individuals that are easiest to kill. This selection usually means taking smaller prey over larger, and young-of-the-year or old individuals over those in the prime of life. Selection of fawns and calves during summer has been widely reported. Wolves target vulnerable individuals. Prey may be most vulnerable when debilitated by starvation, accident or disease, when old and infirm, or during extreme snow conditions.

The effect of wolf predation on prey populations has been the subject of intensive research and scientific debate. Generally, when prey are healthy, in good habitat and without other major limiting factors, wolf predation alone should not cause a decline. However, where populations of caribou, elk, moose or other prey have declined as a result of a combination of factors, such as severe winter weather, hunting and predation, wolves may kill enough animals to hold such herds at a low level for a long period of time. In this situation, wolf predation, often in combination with other predators, especially bears, becomes the major limiting factor.

The impact of wolf predation is not easily assessed; a lot of hard work is involved. The large size of wolf territories necessitates the use of aircraft, off-highway vehicles, and always lots of horse travel or hiking to capture and mark wolves, observe and count prey, or search for kills and other signs of the food habits of wolves. Researchers must be experienced in field work, animal capture and handling, radio-telemetric monitoring, and have extensive knowledge of the ecology of the area. The costs of these long-term (one to several years) projects are large; Alberta is fortunate that several projects have been completed. Summaries of wolf-prey relationships in six areas are detailed below.

The impact of one pack of 9 to 13 wolves on moose was determined in the Alberta Oil Sands Environmental Research Program (AOSERP) area in northeastern Alberta. The researchers estimated 262 yearling and older adult moose in the territory of the Muskeg River pack on May 15, 1977. The number of adult moose consumed over the next year was calculated at 33 to 45, which was equivalent to 13-17 percent of the adult moose population. Because the moose recruitment rate (rate of calf production) was 19 percent, it was concluded that wolf predation was the major limitation on the apparently stationary or slowly declining, low-density moose population. However, recreational hunting was almost as important a factor in limiting the moose population as was wolf predation.

In the Swan Hills, the Foley Lake pack of seven wolves consumed moose at a slightly greater rate than the Muskeg River pack. But, in the Swan Hills, the moose density was up to nine times greater than in the AOSERP area. The impact of wolves was therefore less pronounced.

Although wolf predation on cattle was the primary focus of the Simonette River studies, kills of wild ungulates were monitored. Minimum daily consumption of one wolf pack during 51 days in winter was 5.5 kg (12 lbs.) of moose per wolf, identical to that of the Muskeg River pack in the northeast. The Simonette moose population was stable at 1300 moose/1000 km2 during the years of greatest wolf numbers; and when wolves were controlled to a low level in 1979-1981, the moose did not increase. Wolves selected elk over moose and further selected calves over adults. Yet, despite predation and harvest by hunters, the elk herd held its own. The investigators related the low impact of predation in the instance to the diversity of prey - which included deer, wild horses, livestock and beaver, as well as a productive moose population in excellent habitat. The wolf population was at an artificially lower density because of recurrent control.

Near Nordegg, predation by two radio-monitored packs was observed during 1983-1986. In the high country west of the Bighorn Range, the Blackstone/Brazeau pack killed elk, moose, mule, deer, bighorn sheep and wild horses. During late winters of two years, a helicopter was used daily to accurately determine kill frequency. The pack made a kill, on average, every 2.5 days. Total annual kill was estimated at 112 (1983-84, 9 wolves) and 126 (1984-85, 11 wolves) animals. Elk were killed most frequently. The elk herd produced calves at a low rate. Numbers declined to very low levels of 4-7 calves/100 cows during mid-summers of 1985 and 1986. Because the pack hunted the elk nursery herds during July and August, their kill of calves was probably substantial. It was concluded that wolf predation was the major source of mortality to this declining, unproductive herd.

In Wood Buffalo National Park, where the world's largest free-roaming bison herd had been in decline since about 1970, wolf-bison interactions were studied during 1978-1981. Fifty percent of wolf activity observations were in close association with bison - 143 wolf-bison interactions were documented. One pack made a kill every 7 days, and 40 of 42 kills were bison. Low calf production, losses to wolves, diseases in bison and habitat deterioration (drying of the delta) were all important to the continuing decline of this herd with wolf predation considered the single most important factor.
Jasper National Park is renowned for its diversity of large mammals. The impact of wolves here has been periodically evaluated since 1942. Cowan's observations in the 1940s, when wolves were controlled and ungulates were high in numbers, revealed that mule deer occurred disproportionately more in wolf scats than among all ungulates. Carbyn's work during 1968-1971, showed wolves concentrated on elk calves in summer with associated declines in calf ratios. Mule deer comprised 43 percent of the annual wolf diet. Dekker and his coworkers have postulated that wolf predation was a major factor in the decline of elk herds in the park's back country in the 1970s. They noted that denning wolves selected sites near elk calving areas. Finally during 1989-1992, John Weaver of the University of Montana examined predation by the park's Devona wolf pack which preyed more than expected upon deer and used moose, elk and bighorn sheep less than expected.


The Evolution of Wolf Management


Wolf management began in Alberta in 1899, the year of the first bounty payments. For the next 67 years, the primary objective of wildlife management in regard to wolves was the reduction of populations. Much of the very early (1899-1920s) wolf control was in reaction to losses suffered by agriculturists - predation on livestock was a major setback to Alberta's pioneering settlers.


With the exception of a few years in the 1920s and the '30s, the wolf bounty continued until 1955. The payments, in combination with unregulated shooting, trapping and use of strychnine by residents, were effective in reducing wolves in the settled parts of the province. The maximum number bountied in a single year was 1286 in 1945-46. An average of 725 wolves were submitted for payment in the final 20 years of the program.


The weakness of the bounty was that it provided control "when and where wanted" rather than "when and where needed." The bounty did not stop the wolf advances of the 1930s and the '40s. As more effective programs by government predator control personnel were developed in the 1950s, the wolf and coyote bounties were terminated by agreement of wildlife administrators in western Canada following a meeting in Calgary in September 1954.


The national parks in Alberta controlled wolves in the 1940s and '50s because of concern for their ungulate herds. On provincial lands, wildlife managers initially encouraged trappers wolf harvests, but by 1950 government became more actively involved. The use of toxicants became the first line of defence during the anti-rabies campaign of 1952-1956. This use was continued to 1966, although at reduced vigor, to reduce predation of game herds.


The energetic and effective wolf control programs of the 1950s were carried out in much of the wolf's northern range. In western Canada and Alaska, control was particularly severe. The overriding philosophy was to reduce wolves to minimum levels - and this objective was accomplished. In the short term, wolves paid a steep price, but their high reproductive capacity ultimately enabled them to re-establish their populations. The return of game herds and the eradication of rabies may have justified the wolf wars.


Through the 1960s and the '70s, predator management evolved to include protection as a paramount consideration. After 1966 in Alberta, site-specific wolf control continued only in reaction to confirmed kills of livestock. This change in philosophy resulted from several factors. First, the reduced numbers of wolves and other large carnivores posed fewer problems. Second, elk, deer, and moose herds reached their greatest levels of the century during the late 1950s and the '60's following beneficial changes to their habitats, better management, and fewer predators. Third, an appreciation of wolves and other large carnivores grew among the general human population, in part, as a result of information from predator studies. A reluctance to interfere in wolf-prey relationships developed in government and among wildlife managers.


By the mid-1970s, the management perspective began to change again. Wolves had returned to abundance, livestock problems had increased, and hunters complained of too many wolves and too few ungulates. Studies in Alaska, Minnesota and on Isle Royale, Michigan, quantified wolf kill rates and revealed situations where predation was the dominant depressant of ungulate populations. The results of such studies and continuing complaints from consumptive users of hoofed mammals set the stage for several wolf control programs, which created bitter public debate. In Alaska, the Department of Fish and Game's use of wolf control in the major controversy and lengthy legal challenges. In British Columbia, aerial shooting of wolves to enhance populations of elk, moose and sheep in the Kechika and Muskwa valleys prompted public outcries, intervention by pro-wolf groups and intensive scientific debate. The issue became highly polarized with scientists, managers and public advancing strong arguments for and against control. In Alberta, the emphasis was on additional research and the development of comprehensive management plans.

In Alberta, wolves returned to public prominence during the early 1980s. In 1982, Albertans reported more sightings, including packs in or near settlements. Livestock kills were up, and hunters renewed their complaints. There was no doubt that wolves had taken advantage of favorable conditions. Biologists reported die-offs of moose from ticks across a wide belt stretching from east-central to northwestern Alberta during the preceding winter. Wolves apparently found a plentiful food supply, which allowed high reproduction and survival of pups leading to resurgence in populations. Resulting public discussion prompted government to announce several provisional wolf management strategies in January 1983.


The objectives were to reduce local wolf populations where chronic livestock depredations occurred and ungulate herds were in serious decline. Strategies were designed to encourage a trapping harvest of 30 percent of the provincial wolf population. During 1983-1985, wolf trapping instruction and complimentary equipment were provided to trappers. Additional research of wolf-prey systems was recommended.


During this period, investigations of Alberta's only migratory herd of woodland caribou in Willmore Wilderness-Grande Cache, revealed wolf predation was a likely contributor to the herd's decline. The caribou, which numbered 1000 to 1600 in the 1960s, had plummeted to about 300 by 1980. Caribou were classified as threatened throughout the province, and the hunting season was closed in 1981, but the herd did not respond. Ten of 12 deaths of radioed caribou were thought to be predator-caused, and wolves were implicated in several of them. To assist the herd, the provincial caribou plan of 1986 recommended wolf reductions as one component of restoration. This recommendation renewed public controversy. Wilderness advocates wanted a moratorium on wolf control while other measures in the plan were tried. Such measures include coordinated logging to ensure sufficient old-growth caribou habitat was retained on winter ranges, reduction of kills by Natives, education of hunters, and control of traffic to reduce mortalities on the Grande Cache highway.


Wolf control to restore this herd of threatened caribou did not occur, whereas the remaining strategies inched forward. About the same time, the Nordegg wolf study revealed high winter kill rates and a declining elk herd. Plans to control this wolf population as part of the research were not accepted by government and the study was terminated.

By the mid-1980s, wildlife managers were reporting fewer wolves on winter moose surveys. This decline was not unexpected because many of the northern herds were at low densities and could support few wolves. Rapid declines had been observed in Minnesota, Isle Royale, and in Jasper National Park following the demise of principal prey species. In these situations, wolves invade neighboring territories, fight and kill one another, and starve. This course of events undoubtedly occurred in parts of northern Alberta. Scientists postulate that natural wolf-ungulate systems tend to stabilize at low numbers.


Wolf Management Plan


Comprehensive planning to ensure the wise use and management of wolves in Alberta occurred in the late 1980s. The Fish and Wildlife Division of Alberta Forestry, Lands and Wildlife prepared a draft "Management Plan For Wolves in Alberta." It detailed the history of wolf populations in the province, summarized current uses and problems, and recommended goals, objectives and management strategies. The 1989 draft plan was considered by the Alberta Fish and Wildlife Advisory Committee, a public board that provided input on provincial wildlife management. The committee endorsed the plan in March 1990 and recommended it be implemented. However, as is usually the case with wolf management, there was not unanimous agreement. Nine members voted in favour, three were opposed, and there were two abstentions.

From September 1990 to January 1991, the department revised the plan to clearly indicate the conditions under which wolf control, the most controversial part of the plan, would be considered. It was decided that control to enhance ungulates would not be initiated without the development of specific regional operational plans. Each operational plan must provide an incontestable scientific database on wolf-prey relationships, a cost:benefit analysis, and undergo public review.
The revised plan was released to the public in December 1991. Five major wolf management goals were identified, as follows:


1. Maintain a viable provincial wolf population.
2. Allocate annual wolf harvest.
3. Minimize property damage from wolves.
4. Increase knowledge of wolves.
5. Manage wolves to enhance other wildlife.


Strategies and actions to achieve these goals are described below.

Viable Populations - The long-term objective is to maintain a midwinter population of 4000 wolves in Alberta. This objective requires strategies to maintain about 200 000 hoofed mammals to provide about 30 000 prey animals for wolves each year, and an annual wolf inventory, where possible. Problems with this goal are that declining or low populations of woodland caribou, elk and moose occur in some areas, and wolves are difficult to observe in Alberta's heavily-forested habitats.


A second objective is to enhance wolf conservation and cooperative wildlife management and research programs. Strategies include a sighting registry, joint studies with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and maintenance of about 50 wolves in southwestern Alberta to assist in ongoing wolf recovery in the northwestern states.

Wolf Harvest - This goal focuses on opportunities for people to annually remove wolves from the provincial population. Trappers were considered the priority users ahead of recreational hunters. A maximum potential harvest of 1200 wolves per year was recommended. Primary strategies to provide this harvest are to enhance education on wolf trapping, and in special cases, provide assistance to trappers in the form of road-killed animals for baits and complimentary traps or snares. Harvest management is confounded by problems that include low market demand for black wolves, occurrence of mange (a skin parasite) and mediocre pelt quality (coarse-haired individuals). Recreational hunting of wolves in Alberta is inefficient in areas of heavy tree cover.


Property Damage- The major objective of the Alberta government under this goal is the reduction of damages from wolves especially the predation of livestock and pets. Strategies include wildlife management planning input into land-use decisions especially those involving establishment of remote grazing reserves and leases, education to improve animal husbandry, annual removal of offending wolves where chronic depredations occur, and continued compensation for confirmed wolf kills.


Knowledge - It is important that the public has access to high-quality information concerning wolves in Alberta. To ensure this quality of information is available, the government recommends additional scientific study of wolf populations and prey relationships, and production of educational materials about wolves in Alberta.


Management of Wolves to Enhance Prey Populations - The Alberta government's objective is to manage wolf populations in local areas where predation has been shown to be a major limitation to hoofed mammals. The intention is to allow the caribou, elk or other ungulate populations to increase to levels that can be supported by existing habitat. Strategies include identifying the role of wolf predation where ungulate populations remain below historical levels, and reducing local wolf populations where wolf-prey information and public opinion are supportive.


Current Projects


Northeastern Alberta - A study of wolf predation on woodland caribou and moose was initiated in 1994 in two adjacent areas of the mixed wood boreal forest within the Alberta Pacific Forest Management Area. Populations of woodland caribou may decline where the biomass of moose allows wolves to increase or be maintained at high levels. A current hypothesis for the long-term viability of woodland caribou is that they must minimize predation by occupying habitats away from wolves. The two sites selected for study are Pelican (large peatland, 250 caribou in Wabasca herd) and House River (small peatland, 30 caribou in Agnes herd, surrounded by high-quality moose habitat). This project is coordinated by the Northeast Standing Committee on Woodland Caribou and the University of Alberta's department of Biological Sciences.


Wolves for Yellowstone and Idaho - The United States Fish and Wildlife Service's (USFWS) Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery Plan (1987) recommended the establishment of a minimum of 10 breeding pairs of wolves in each of three recovery areas in the northwestern states. In August 1994, the USFWS requested that Alberta provide about 15 wolves each year for three to five years. During November and December 1994, registered trappers, and the USFWS and Alberta Environmental Protection live-captured and radio-collared 17 wolves in west-central Alberta to identify wolf packs for the project. In January 1995, wolves were captured by aerial darting and trapping; 29 were airlifted to two recovery areas. Alberta will continue to assist in USA wolf recovery if survival of donated wolves is satisfactory.


Southeastern Alberta - Wolves were uncommon in extreme southwestern Alberta (Chain Lakes south to the international border) for most of this century. Forty to 50 wolves again occupied this area during the early 1990s. In 1994, at least 24 cattle were killed or mauled by wolves in the area. Concerned ranchers, conservationists and governments (national park and provincial) organized cooperative wolf research and management projects, which included a wolf sighting registry, fund-raising to compensate for wolf kills of livestock, and radio-telemetric monitoring. In Banff National Park and adjacent areas, Carolyn Callaghan of the University of Guelph is developing a GIS-based habitat suitability model for wolves in mountainous terrain.

DNA Studies - Diane Boyd of the University of Montana is conducting genetic analyses of the wolves that occur between central Alberta and Montana. Her DNA studies will help identify the origin and relatedness of recolonizing wolves. For example, if these new populations descended from a small number of wolves, they could be susceptible to disease and genetic disorders. On the other hand, if from diverse ancestors, wolves currently repopulating southern Alberta and the northern USA should be healthy and more likely to persist.


The Future of Wolves in Alberta


In today's Alberta, among a largely urban human population, the wolf is increasingly perceived as a symbol of wilderness and environmental quality. The days when our pioneering ancestors wanted to rid the country of every wolf are gone, probably forever. These changing attitudes have great impact on how wolves will be managed in the future. Modern management must consider the ethics of wolf control, and find a balance between utilitarian (control reasonable) versus naturalistic (control unacceptable) philosophies, and between humaneness of control and capture efficiency. The form of wolf management must be acceptable to the majority of citizens.

A healthy wolf population in Alberta means that depredations of livestock and pets will occur. Although preventive animal husbandry can reduce such occurrences, and compensation payments help producers with their loss, some removal of offending animals will be necessary. In the 1990s in Alberta, fewer than 50 wolves are removed annually because of this problem. Such control will be as selective and humane as possible, preferably through trapping. Toxicants will be used only as a last resort.

More than a quarter century has elapsed since the last wolf control program in Alberta was conducted to restore or enhance a hoofed mammal population. Such control can be effective as demonstrated in Alaska, Yukon and British Columbia, but remains highly controversial. Alberta will evaluate additional wolf-prey relationships. Temporary reductions in local wolf populations are controversial, but may be required as part of the overall strategy to effectively restore threatened ungulates. Public awareness and knowledge are paramount to future wolf management.

It has also been more than a quarter century since Douglas Pimlott, Canada's most noted wolf authority at the time, asked the question "Will the species still exist when the twentieth century passes into history?" In Alberta, the wolf will enter the next century in good numbers; its future seems assured.